In the United States, macroeconomic momentum has shown signs of cooling as weaker labour market data, including sharp downward revisions to prior employment figures, have raised questions about the underlying strength of the recovery. Inflation, while still above the Federal Reserve’s long-term target, has moderated to levels increasingly seen as “acceptable” for policymakers. Against this backdrop, attention turns to next week’s FOMC meeting, where markets are broadly pricing in a 25bps rate cut. This adjustment is viewed as a pre-emptive move to support growth while ensuring that inflation expectations remain anchored. Investors will also be watching for signals on the Fed’s forward guidance, particularly how it balances cooling labour dynamics with the political scrutiny it faces over its independence.
Across the Atlantic, the European Central Bank opted to keep policy rates unchanged at its September meeting. The decision reflects both a more benign inflation trajectory and upgraded growth expectations for 2025, which provided policymakers with breathing space. However, despite the near-term pause, markets still anticipate further cuts later in the year as the ECB seeks to sustain momentum while navigating external headwinds from trade disruptions and global demand softness. Yet two of Europe’s largest economies have become sources of concern. In France, political instability and fiscal unease have driven sovereign yields sharply higher, to the point where some large corporates now borrow more cheaply than the state itself. Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom, gilt yields have surged to levels not seen in nearly three decades, intensifying scrutiny on the government’s fiscal stance and prompting calls for the Bank of England to recalibrate its quantitative tightening programme.

​So far, 2025 has been shaped by sharp swings in financial markets, driven by geopolitical shocks, shifting monetary policy expectations, and evolving macroeconomic conditions. The year began with strong risk appetite, fuelled by optimism over disinflation and AI-led corporate growth, but momentum faltered in April when the US announced sweeping “Liberation Day” tariffs, reigniting fears of a global trade war. Equity markets corrected sharply before stabilising in early summer, supported by resilient corporate earnings and easing volatility. Inflation has proven stickier than expected in most major economies, prompting central banks, especially the Fed and the BoE, to delay or temper rate-cut expectations. The US dollar weakened in the first half of the year, boosting gold prices to multi-year highs as investors sought safe-haven assets. Overall, 2025 has presented a complex mix of resilience and risk, leaving investors to navigate an unusually uncertain macroeconomic and geopolitical backdrop.
Inflation trends in 2025 have underscored the challenge facing central banks in the United States, the Euro Area, and the United Kingdom, with price pressures proving more persistent than policymakers had anticipated. In the US, headline CPI has eased from its 2022 and 2023 peaks but remains above the Federal Reserve’s 2% target. While core inflation has been slower to decline, driven by stubborn services and shelter costs. The Euro Area has seen a similar pattern, with headline inflation moderating on the back of lower energy prices but core readings staying elevated due to wage growth and resilient domestic demand. The UK has faced the stickiest inflation among the three, with both headline and core measures remaining well above target despite easing commodity costs—reflecting underlying pressures in the labour market and housing sector. As shown in Figure 1, inflation has come down substantially since 2023, the Euro Area is the only geography of the three that has maintained an inflation rate at or below 2% for multiple months. In contrast, the UK’s inflation rate has begun to soar again and remains well above 3% in recent months.
Interest rate policy has reflected these dynamics, with the Fed and the BoE both delaying widely expected rate cuts as inflation progress slowed in the first half of the year. The Fed has maintained rates at close to their multi-year highs, emphasising the need for sustained evidence of disinflation before easing. The BoE has lowered its interest rates more steadily in 2025 than the US, but the country has to balance cuts with currently rising inflation. In contrast, the European Central Bank has begun to signal a cautious easing path, supported by weaker growth data and a more pronounced decline in headline inflation across the bloc. Elsewhere, Japan’s policy shift away from ultra-loose conditions has stood in sharp contrast, underscoring the divergence in global monetary stances and adding a further layer of complexity to capital flows and currency markets in 2025.

​Since stepping into office in January 2025, President Donald Trump has been highly active in reshaping US domestic and foreign policies, implementing a range of executive orders with a focus on national security, the revitalisation of the economy, and immigration. While he announced potential tariffs, the pace at which he planned to impose these tariffs is surprising. In February 2025, he announced a 25% tariff on all imports from Canada and Mexico, citing border security and drug trafficking concerns, with Canadian energy exports facing a lower 10% tariff. However, these tariffs are currently suspended for 30 days, and it will be vital to observe whether they will be predominantly used as a tool for negotiations or are intended to be fully implemented. For Canada and Mexico, it could have devastating effects on their currency, as the Chinese Yuan declined significantly. Importantly, China is much less reliant on the US for exports than Canada or Mexico are. Trump also imposed a 10% tariff on all Chinese imports. In retaliation, China announced tariffs on US energy and specific machinery, such as agricultural machinery and large-engine vehicles. Lastly, Trump reinstated prior tariffs of 25% on steel and aluminum imports, bolstering the country’s own industry. Unlike during his first tenure, he also imposed these tariffs on allied nations.

​After peaking inflation in the US in 2021 and 2022, inflation decreased in 2023 to below 4% in the summer and steadily hovered between 3% and 4% until summer 2024. At the time, US inflation fell below 3% for the time in years and followed an optimistic trend to as low as 2.4%, before inflation started to pick up again October 2024. Since then, inflation steadily rose to 2.9% in December 2024. While the development overall is promising, the most recent trend is worrying, as interest rates remain at high levels.
To combat inflation, the Federal Reserve increased interest rates aggressively to as high as 5.25% - 5.5% until late 2023. Initially, cuts were expected by spring 2024. Eventually, the Federal Reserve started cutting interest rates aggressively in autumn 2024. By the end of 2024, US interest rates are between 4.25% and 4.5%. Originally, cuts in the same magnitudes were expected for 2025. These expectations were crushed by Powell in the Fed’s December meeting, in which he suggested that there will only be two 25bps rates cuts throughout 2025. With inflation expected to remain between 2% and 3%, the US labour market will mark an important decision maker for the Federal Reserve for their short-term interest rate policy. Additionally, Trump is another unknown, as he is a strong advocate for lowering rates sooner rather than later. However, while he can influence a lot, it is unlikely that his view will have an impact on the monetary policy, especially as it is virtually impossible for him to replace Powell as Chair of the Federal Reserve. Powell also proved in their meeting at the end of January 2025 that he is not swayed that easily, when the Fed decided to hold interest rates at current level. Figure 1 shows the development of inflation and interest rates in the US, the Euro zone, and the UK from 2023 to January 2025.